Physical Exercise and Brain Health: Memory and Prevention

Daniel Velázquez-Díaz, postdoctoral researcher with the ExPhy Research Group at the University of Cádiz, highlights based on scientific evidence the benefits of physical exercise in childhood, adulthood, and older age.

Can physical exercise improve memory and prevent cognitive decline? Scientific evidence indicates that it can.

Physical exercise is one of the most effective nonpharmacological interventions for improving brain health throughout the lifespan. Scientific evidence shows that physical activity not only supports physical fitness, but also improves cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and executive functions, while helping prevent cognitive decline and dementia.

Introduction

When we think about physical exercise, we usually associate it with playing some kind of sport, improving physical fitness, or losing body weight. However, science has shown for years that movement is also one of the most powerful tools for taking care of the brain.

From childhood through older age, physical exercise influences brain development, cognitive performance, mental health, and the prevention of cognitive decline. Below, we review several aspects of what scientific evidence says about the benefits of physical exercise at each stage of life.

Childhood and adolescence: physical exercise, brain health, and academic performance

Childhood and adolescence are key stages in brain development. During these years, the brain is especially plastic, meaning that it responds very sensitively to environmental stimuli, including physical activity.

Numerous studies have shown that more active children and adolescents, or those with better physical fitness, have better cognitive and academic performance, especially in processes such as attention, memory, and executive functions (Donnelly et al., 2016). Clearly, these skills are essential for learning and academic success.

In addition, the evidence goes beyond academic performance. Studies using neuroimaging techniques have shown that physical activity is associated with greater volume of key brain structures, such as the hippocampus and basal ganglia, regions involved in memory, learning, and cognitive control (Cadenas-Sanchez et al., 2023). For example, research led by the University of Granada observed positive associations between physical fitness and the volume of different brain regions in children (Cadenas-Sanchez et al., 2023).

Similarly, scientific evidence indicates that higher levels of physical activity are associated with better academic outcomes in mathematics and language during adolescence (Donnelly et al., 2016; Esteban-Cornejo et al., 2015).

These findings reinforce the idea that physical exercise is not only health; it is also education. Promoting quality physical education, active play, and reduced sedentary time may have a direct impact on the cognitive development of children and adolescents.

Adulthood: the role of physical exercise in mental health

In adulthood, physical exercise becomes a key ally for mental health. Anxiety and depression are among the most prevalent mental disorders and represent a significant personal, social, and economic burden.

Scientific evidence indicates that regular physical exercise is associated with a significant reduction in symptoms of depression and anxiety (Rebar et al., 2015). Meta-analyses and systematic reviews have shown that exercise can be an effective strategy for both preventing and complementing the treatment of these disorders (Rebar et al., 2015; Schuch et al., 2016).

The mechanisms explaining these benefits are multiple:

Improved stress regulation through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
Increased neurotransmitters associated with well-being, such as serotonin and dopamine.
Reduced systemic inflammation.
Improved sleep, self-esteem, and perceived self-efficacy.

The most interesting point is that there does not seem to be a single “recipe.” Both aerobic exercise and resistance training have demonstrated benefits for mental health. Beyond the type of exercise, the key factor appears to be regularity and long-term adherence to physical exercise.

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Aging: physical exercise and prevention of cognitive decline

With aging, the brain undergoes structural and functional changes that may lead to cognitive decline and dementia. Nevertheless, physical exercise has become established as one of the most promising lifestyle factors for preserving brain health in later life.

Scientific evidence has shown that physically active older adults have better cognitive performance, less brain atrophy, and greater preservation of key brain regions such as the hippocampus (Erickson et al., 2009, 2011). A classic study showed that aerobic exercise programs can even increase hippocampal volume and improve memory in older adults (Erickson et al., 2011).

In addition, regular physical activity is associated with a lower risk of developing dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. The scientific literature has indicated that more active people have a lower risk of cognitive decline and dementia compared with those who lead sedentary lifestyles (Sofi et al., 2011).

At this stage, the evidence suggests that the greatest benefits are obtained with multicomponent programs that include:

Aerobic exercise.
Resistance training to preserve muscle mass.
Activities that integrate cognitive and social stimulation.

Conclusion: moving is caring for brain health

Throughout life, physical exercise acts as a true modulator of brain health: from supporting cognitive development in childhood, to protecting mental health in adulthood, and reducing the risk of cognitive decline in older age. Ultimately, moving is an investment in cognitive and emotional well-being.

Promoting active lifestyles from an early age and maintaining them throughout life should be a priority in both educational and healthcare settings. In this regard, the World Health Organization sums it up clearly and forcefully with its motto, “every move counts” (Bull et al., 2020). Physical exercise is not merely a healthy habit; it is a key tool for caring for the brain.

References

Bull, F. C., Al-Ansari, S. S., Biddle, S., Borodulin, K., Buman, M. P., Cardon, G., Carty, C., Chaput, J. P., Chastin, S., Chou, R., Dempsey, P. C., Dipietro, L., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., Friedenreich, C. M., Garcia, L., Gichu, M., Jago, R., Katzmarzyk, P. T., … Willumsen, J. F. (2020). World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54(24), 1451–1462. https://doi.org/10.1136/BJSPORTS-2020-102955
Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Migueles, J. H., Verdejo-Román, J., Erickson, K. I., Esteban-Cornejo, I., Catena, A., & Ortega, F. B. (2023). Physical activity, sedentary time, and fitness in relation to brain shapes in children with overweight/obesity: Links to intelligence. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 33(3), 319–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/SMS.14263
Donnelly, J. E., Hillman, C. H., Castelli, D., Etnier, J. L., Lee, S., Tomporowski, P., Lambourne, K., & Szabo-Reed, A. N. (2016). Physical Activity, Fitness, Cognitive Function, and Academic Achievement in Children: A Systematic Review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 48(6), 1197–1222. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000901
Erickson, K. I., Prakash, R. S., Voss, M. W., Chaddock, L., Hu, L., Morris, K. S., White, S. M., Wójcicki, T. R., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2009). Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly humans. Hippocampus, 19(10), 1030–1039. https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.20547
Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3017–3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108
Esteban-Cornejo, I., Tejero-Gonzalez, C. M., Sallis, J. F., & Veiga, O. L. (2015). Physical activity and cognition in adolescents: A systematic review. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18(5), 534–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2014.07.007
Rebar, A. L., Stanton, R., Geard, D., Short, C., Duncan, M. J., & Vandelanotte, C. (2015). A meta-meta-analysis of the effect of physical activity on depression and anxiety in non-clinical adult populations. Health Psychology Review, 9(3), 366–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2015.1022901
Schuch, F. B., Vancampfort, D., Richards, J., Rosenbaum, S., Ward, P. B., & Stubbs, B. (2016). Exercise as a treatment for depression: A meta-analysis adjusting for publication bias. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 77, 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JPSYCHIRES.2016.02.023
Sofi, F., Valecchi, D., Bacci, D., Abbate, R., Gensini, G. F., Casini, A., & Macchi, C. (2011). Physical activity and risk of cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Journal of Internal Medicine, 269(1), 107–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2796.2010.02281.X

Frequently asked questions about physical exercise and brain health

1. How does physical exercise affect brain health?

Physical exercise improves brain health by promoting neuroplasticity, increasing cerebral blood flow, and stimulating the release of neurotrophic factors such as BDNF. These mechanisms help improve cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and executive functions.

2. Does physical exercise improve memory?

Yes, scientific evidence shows that regular physical activity is associated with improvements in memory, especially episodic memory. This is partly due to structural changes in the hippocampus, a key region for learning and memory consolidation.

3. What is the relationship between physical activity and academic performance?

Scientific evidence indicates that more active children and adolescents perform better in processes such as attention, memory, and executive functions. Specifically, high levels of physical activity correlate with better outcomes in key areas such as mathematics and language.

4. Can physical exercise prevent cognitive decline?

Physical exercise is one of the most relevant lifestyle factors in preventing cognitive decline. Several studies have shown that physically active people have a lower risk of developing dementia and Alzheimer’s disease compared with those who lead sedentary lifestyles.

5. What type of exercise is best for brain health?

There is no single optimal type of exercise. Both aerobic exercise and resistance training have demonstrated cognitive benefits. The most effective programs usually combine aerobic exercise, resistance training, and activities that integrate cognitive and social stimulation.

6. How often is exercise recommended to improve cognition?

General recommendations suggest engaging in at least 150 minutes of moderate physical activity per week. However, cognitive benefits may be observed even at lower levels, especially in people who were previously sedentary.

7. What role does physical exercise play in neurorehabilitation?

In neurorehabilitation, physical exercise is used as a complementary intervention to improve cognitive functions, support recovery after acquired brain injury, and slow decline in neurodegenerative diseases. Combining it with cognitive stimulation enhances therapeutic outcomes.

8. Is physical exercise beneficial for older adults?

Yes, in older adults, physical exercise is associated with better preservation of cognitive function, less brain atrophy, and a reduced risk of cognitive decline. It also helps maintain functional independence and quality of life.

9. Does physical exercise help reduce anxiety and depression?

Regular physical exercise is associated with a significant reduction in symptoms of anxiety and depression. This is due to neurobiological effects, such as neurotransmitter regulation, and psychological benefits such as improved self-esteem and overall well-being.